Utilitarianism is one of the most powerful and persuasive approaches to normative ethics in the history of philosophy. Utilitarianism is the moral theory that an action is morally right if and only if it produces at least as much good (utility) for all people affected by the action as any alternative action the person could do instead. It is associated with Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, and is perhaps the most influential philosophical position affecting public policy.
The word "deontology" derives from the Greek words deon, meaning duty, and logos, meaning the study or science of, so that "deontology" literally means “the study or science of duty.” Rightness is established by conformity to moral norms or rules that we have a duty to follow. Deontologists attempt to establish our moral duties, the set of rules that are morally binding, and using these we can guide our behavior and choices. The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) defines deontology as "the study of that which binds."
Social contract theory is the view that political structure and legitimacy of the state stem from explicit or implicit agreement by individuals to surrender specified rights in exchange for the stability of social order and/or for the protection of government. The ultimate goal of social contract theories is to show, in the most general sense, that social (moral, political, legal, etc.) rules can be rationally justified. Human reason is a key element in social contract theories. First, the underlying view of human nature includes that we are rational beings and therefore can understand why and how regulations and principles make life better. Further, given that humans are rational, the contract itself needs to express what a rational person would agree to.
Social contract theories demonstrate why members of a society would rationally find it in their best interests to comply with and uphold the principles and regulations of their society. A social contract theory attempts to justify a particular political system by showing why members of society would consent to it. Members of society freely relinquish something they value - such as aspects of their freedom - in exchange for something else they also value - a sense of security and safety. Consent to contracts is built into the nature of being citizens of the state. NOTE: An exception to this might be the case of an immigrant becoming a naturalized citizen, and here, there would be an actual oath of compliance, or consent.
Leviathan, written by the English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) and first published in 1651, looks at the structure of systems of government and develops the social contract theory. In the text, Hobbes imagines a time prior to the creation of social institutions, when humans were motivated solely by satisfying their desires. When land and food are plentiful, people can meet their needs and even store surplus for lean times. But as population increases, people compete for resources, which means that one person’s gain is another’s loss. Scarcity leads to conflict when people fight to obtain what they need. Prior to the establishment of political authority, there is no check on violence, and thus human beings enter a state of perpetual war, which Hobbes considers the state of nature.
Hobbes held vividly pessimistic views of humans in their state of nature and of the social contract that is required for living in a relatively untroubled society.
Feminism is, among other things, a political and philosophical movement that aims to end sexism and promote social justice.
In ethics, feminist thinkers have traditionally explored, criticized, and sought to correct the role gender has historically played in the development and application of moral beliefs and practices. They examine the ways in which power defines relationships within society and the extent to which it has influenced social/cultural development.
Feminist ethics places special emphasis on exploring the role of gender and gendered thinking in shaping our views, values, and our understanding of ourselves and the world.
US feminist psychologist, Carol Gilligan put forth "ethics of care" as an alternative to hierarchal, principled approaches to ethics.
Aristotle uses the word hexis to denote moral virtue. But the word does not merely mean passive habituation. Rather, hexis is an active condition, a state in which something must actively hold itself.
Virtue, therefore, manifests itself in action. More explicitly, an action counts as virtuous, according to Aristotle, when one holds oneself in a stable equilibrium of the soul, in order to choose the action knowingly and for its own sake. This stable equilibrium of the soul is what constitutes character.
